The Role Of Victorian Women Jane Eyre free essay sample

The Role Of Victorian Womans: Jane Eyre By Charolette Bronte Essay, Research Paper Jane Eyre Jane Eyre # 8217 ; s Triumph Over Oppression: Charlotte Bronte # 8217 ; s Example for Women Charlotte Bronte, in her novel, Jane Eyre, establishes us with a first-hand history of a adult females # 8217 ; s victory over adversities. Jain was born orphaned, hapless, and grew up in an un-loving place. To add abuse to hurt, she was a adult female in Victorian society ; a low-level place to get down with. Throughout the novel, Jane faces many adversities that genuinely tested her spirit and unity. She refused to hold her life determined for her, and stayed strong through hardship. By giving us the character of Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte gives us a medium in which to experience the agony and impotence of Jane # 8217 ; s state of affairss. The first-person narrative helps the reader relate more closely to the state of affairs, and the victory of Jane # 8217 ; s character through her hardships is an illustration for adult females to populate their lives by. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role Of Victorian Women Jane Eyre or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When Jane is merely 10 old ages old, we are shown a glance of her strength of character. Confronting much bitterness and immorality in the Reed house, Jane can non be degraded much longer, at least without stating something about it, and confronts Mrs. Reed: # 8220 ; I am non fallacious: if I were, I should state I loved you ; but I declare I do non love you: I dislike you the worst of anybody in the universe except John Reed: and this book about the prevaricator, you may give to your miss Georgiana, for it is she who tells prevarications, and non I ( p.45 ) .† Further portraying Jane’s passion and stamina is what she thought right before standing up for herself. Speak I must: I had been trodden on badly, and must turn: but how? What strength had I to flit revenge at my adversary? I gathered my energies and launched them in this blunt sentence: †¦ ( p.45 ) This is a immense turning point in Jane’s life ; one that greatly affects her for the remainder of her life. After go oning her revenge at Mrs. Reed, Jane feels over-powered. â€Å"Ere I had finished this answer, my psyche began to spread out, to walk on air, with the strangest sense of freedom, of victory, I of all time felt.† ( p.46 ) This gives Jane a sense of assurance in herself to travel out in the universe and be what she wants to be. She straight addressed a fright, stood up for herself, and, in the procedure, gained the strength and fortitude she would necessitat e to confront her approaching adversities. Jane grows up with a natural inquiring of authorization and an independent, un-coercive head. She was non traveling to put down for merely anyone, and was ever cognizant of the subjugation she was enduring, and where it was coming from. When Helen tells Jane to be less unprompted and merely to obey the regulations of her school and†¦ The remainder of the paper is available free of charge to our registered users. The enrollment procedure merely couldn # 8217 ; t be easier. Log in or registry now. It is all free!

Treatment for ADHD †Pyschology Essay

Treatment for ADHD – Pyschology Essay Free Online Research Papers Treatment for ADHD Pyschology Essay According to Rief one should be aware of the fact that â€Å"ADHD is not something that can be cured, but it can be treated and managed effectively†(Rief, p.29). Rief is of the opinion that combination of medical, behavioral and educational interventions can help a child who has ADHD. Rief emphasizes the importance of the management strategies. Thereby, cooperation between parents, clinicians and educators plays a crucial role in helping children with this syndrome. Furthermore, the children should be treated not only at school but also at home. It is important to be aware of the fact that educating parents about ADHD is crucial. Broadly speaking, Rief suggests multimodal treatment program the aim of which is to help children with ADHD. This program emphasizes the importance of counseling and pharmacological intervention. As far as counseling is concerned, the parent of the child who has ADHD should be knowledgeable about this syndrome. This means that the parent learns effective behavioral techniques in order to help the child. Not only should the parents be acquainted with basic terminology but also siblings and other family members. It seems reasonable to assume that individual counseling is of paramount importance. In this case a child learn effective methods of dealing with stress or anger. Additionally, one is acquainted with problem solving and self-monitoring strategies. Rief p. 31 recommends also social skills training the aim of which is to learn specific skills through discussion and role playing. In addition to this, a special ADHD coaching is recommended especially for adolescents and adults with ADHD. Coaches support the clients Research Papers on Treatment for ADHD - Pyschology EssayPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andHip-Hop is ArtComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoThree Concepts of PsychodynamicStandardized TestingIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in Capital

Book Review on Undaunted Courage

Book Review on Undaunted Courage Book Review on Undaunted Courage Book review: Undaunted Courage by Steven Ambrose In his book, Undaunted Courage, Steven Ambrose brings to our attention the life history of young Lewis before the expedition to the pacific coast. He gives us an impression that Lewis was an intelligent young boy, an attribute that saw him lead the expedition. According to the author, Lewis’ childhood was promising and his future was bright. He made good choices in his youthful life. The Lewis and Clark expedition was influenced by the relationship between Lewis and Thomas Jefferson, who was a family friend. The author comes up with a summary of the 2000-mile expedition in an amazing prose. During the exploration, Lewis wrote his characteristic voluminous journals expressing their two years joy as well as the mysteries they were experiencing. President Thomas Jefferson chose Lewis to lead the expedition whose purpose was to explore and discover a northwest route to the Pacific Ocean and opening commercial ties with the inhabitants of the area. Lewis is a perfect choice to lead the expedition because of his military background where he was a captain. Again, it is indicated in numerous instances that he was very intelligent, something that began since he was a small boy. Lewis is presented by the author as a reasonable man with a natural gift in scientific observation. He is even said to have been a skilled and experienced naturalist. These are some of the qualities that made him catch the eye of the president of course considering the two were friends from home. In his troop, the second in command was Lieutenant William Clark, a friend to Lewis who still was a younger brother to an activist and a war general, George Rogers Clark. The troop went by the name ‘corps of discovery’ and consisted of 30 other recruits. The expedition started in May 1804 and they sailed the river using canoes with others walking on foot along the banks. The leader had strict instructions from the president to keep a journal, which he wrote about the daily events taking place around them. This included daily measurement in latitude and longitude and his scientific observations. As the expedition goes on, a Canadian decided to join the ‘corps of discovery’ with his teenage wife who later on plays a big role in the survival of the voyage. Lewis is disappointed as there is no connection between the river Missouri leading to the pacific so the troop had to traverse through the great falls of the Missouri river and the Rocky Mountains. By this time, their food reserves were running low and were forced to trade their horses against foodstuff for survival. The troop reached the pacific coast in November 1805, were they put up a fort that was named Fort Clatsop. The following spring, the expedition having suffered low supplies begun their voyage back. Lewis and Clark however decided to split the troops into two and explore the east and west water routes. At this time, the corps encountered a hostile military engagement but the troops remained intact without losing anyone of them. However, two lives were lost in the attacking community. Upon their return, Lewis and Clark are received back home as heroes and Lewis is appointed as governor. This was the beginning of his troubles since he was not a good politician and eventually he became an alcoholic, as he was depressed. He unfortunately loses his life at an early age of thirty-five years after committing suicide. Ambrose has used the journals from the expedition and presented the story in a systematic way that reveals the history of Lewis’ background. In my opinion, the presentation of the chronological events that took place in regards to Lewis prior, during and after the expedition is very clear and informative. The author has dedicated his efforts to establish and impart basic knowledge on the details and circumstances surrounding the historic expedition by Lewis. This is an excellent piece of art that I would recommend anyone to read as it is based on the accounts of the historic expedition in the pacific. Feel free to buy a book review online, on any topic you need. All custom book reviews are written from scratch by professional review writers.

Compare and Contrast the Shang and Zhou Dynasty Research Paper

Compare and Contrast the Shang and Zhou Dynasty - Research Paper Example The Shang and Zhou dynasties cover the era between 1700 and 250 BC. They were famously known for their use of bronze and jade, and for their well-trained armies and constant use of human sacrifice. One may wonder: what made the two communities rich, strong and powerful? What still make these communities to be heard in the society? These two dynasties of China are the first dynasties for which there are several historical records. Historically, Shang is the first dynasty in China. Shang dynasty emerged after the Xia dynasty of which history slightly touches on and before the Zhou dynasty. This discourse will try find out the historical background of Shang and Zhou dynasties while exploring several happenings during their dynasties. These two dynasties started as semi nomadic tribes that habituated the western side of Shang kingdom. Their nomadic lifestyle prepared them to work with different people who had different cultures. Somewhere around 1040 B.C Zhou conquered Shang during a war fare. To their advantage, Zhou got loyalty of the disaffected cities. Therefore, the Shang collapsed their morals; Zhou took advantage of this and took over Shang dynasty. This made Zhou adopt Shang lifestyle to an extent of applying Shang artisan techniques. Due to their nature of artistic lifestyle, Shang dynasty was well known to practice their art work in a distinctive manner. They majorly got engaged in bronze casting where ceramics were modeled and were used to serve food and wine to their ancestors back in those days. Another distinctive lifestyle is their fully developed writing structure. The state of development and complexity in most of their writings explicitly portrayed early development period which is not attested up to today (Dani 1996). The most discussed distinctive and characteristic image was decoration which was majorly done to the bronze vessel known as taotie. Based on ancient dynasties, the Zhou who had adopted Shang lifestyles and dynasty devised

Team Analysis of Competing Values Framework Coursework

Team Analysis of Competing Values Framework - Coursework Example Every member of the team depicts effective both at personal and organizational levels. Every quadrant is represented by the values. Control is highly represented in the quadrant. Most of the team members embrace control, which involves doing things right. Create follows the control character, which involves doing things first. Besides doing things rightful, the team members embrace characters of innovation. Compete is the third dominant managerial characteristic of the team members. Competition implies undertaking managerial duties fast and at the desired pace. The least represented in the framework is collaborate. Collaboration demands togetherness when performing roles. Avoiding negative extremes in the team is a vital aspect of management. Ensuring people focus is a sure strategy to enhance effectiveness. People focus managers show compassion, are concerned and expressive. Authenticity is the second key factor to enhance effectiveness. An authentic manager is reflective, mindful, and principled. Practicality is the third important character for an effective manager. Practicality involves being factual, realistic and

Truth behind Equality Essay Example for Free

Truth behind Equality Essay Peter Singer is an Australian Philosopher and a utilitarianism who actively advocates the animal rights and equality between species. He presented his arguments regarding his convictions on his articles such as â€Å"All Animals are Equal†, â€Å"Famine, Affluence and Morality† and â€Å"Humans are Sentient Too. † These articles, though have different points, were interrelated, and in one point, connected to each other. These articles simply advocated animal ethics and equality. In his article, â€Å"Famine, Affluence and Morality†, Singer presented his notions regarding morality in relevance to famine and affluence. His first notion in his article was that death caused by scarcity of basic necessities in life such as food, shelter and medicine was bad. Singer used the situation in Bengal on 1971 as an example, wherein poverty, starvation and civil war resulted to suffering and death of people of East Bengal. In his second notion, he suggested that if we were able to prevent such bad things to happen then we were required to do everything we could do to stop that without the expense of doing anything comparably bad. He also believed that affluence countries such as Great Britain and Australia, who had all the capabilities to provide help, should help first the people of Bengal, regardless of how it is from them, instead of giving attentions to less significant things. Furthermore, he believed that it was the government’s responsibilities to provide help so as the individuals. This thought made up his third notion. In his fourth notion, he believed that those who could provide aid should give maximally since not all people were able to contribute. Moreover, he suggested that people should change their outlook regarding charity. It was in our moral norm that charity was not mandatory- it is alright if you do have something to offer but it is also alright if you do not have. However, Singer suggested that it was against the moral norm not to give. Singer, made people blameworthy by this thought. Singer might get his views regarding his moral concept on Marxism wherein individuals were concerned on developing the human race. However, we are living in the real world where humans are too greedy and self-centered to give and to think of others. Moreover, on the economic point of view, it is not economically practical to accept the ideas of Singer since providing help to other countries is just a temporary solution in the case of East Bengal. In conclusion to Singer’s article â€Å"Famine, Affluence and Morality†, it is everyone’s moral obligation to give assistance to someone who is badly in need or in the near death. He believed that it was worth sacrificing the things that are less significant than the life of people. In this case, Singer’s claim with regard to his first article is related to his other article entitled â€Å"All Animals are Equal†. In this article, he first introduced the non-dying issue concerning sexism. He mentioned that all humans were not equal in any aspect, but we still believe that men and women were just morally similar and women deserved to be recognized as men did. Women deserved to have equality with men. In this case, since men and women were just part of the same species, Singer claimed that it was also possible to extend the same recognition to other species- the ones we called animals. Singer also pointed out the case of racism, which was also an undying issue in almost all parts of the world. Whites were claiming that they were superior to blacks; however we all know that it was not true. Some of the blacks were superior to whites and had some capacities that whites do not have. A person’s color was not a justifiable basis to know his abilities. It was not right to discriminate other people just because he was black and as a human being he deserved the same treatments and rights just like the other people. However, it was also undeniably right that humans and animals had so many differences and these differences might lead to different rights and considerations. Singer believed that these differences were not an excuse not to give animals the rights that they deserved. Humankind must realize that equality among humans was not just a factual possibility but also a moral ideal. Singer also suggested that the ideal of equality among humans was all about on how we ought to treat humans. Moral equality was highly dependent on the nature of the individuals, either human or non-human. Considering all those aspects with regard to moral ideals, various views on speciesism had come up to Singer. He described speciesism as an act or attitude which favors the interest of ones own species to take priority over the other species. It was not the physical and mental aspects of animals that were in question with regard of equality, but it was their emotional aspect that was taken into consideration. Humans let the animals to suffer just to satisfy our needs, though we definitely knew that there were other means of satisfying our nutritional requirements. As human beings, we all knew that we were guilty of doing such things. Singer noted in his article that humans were all speciesists and we were all morally wrong for being such since humans allowed the sufferings of other species to happen in our own hands. Singer also pointed out that our society allowed rearing and killing of sentient animals just to supply the needs of people for meats. Singer noted that the act of rearing and killing sentient animals was an obvious evidence of giving other species suffering though we knew that we could stop that to happen thus making us tolerate something bad to happen and at the same time making us morally wrong. Singer suggested that it was our moral obligation to stop practicing this method since it only catered satisfaction to our stomach and craving to eat meat. Likewise, Singer suggested that we should stop killing other species since they have feelings too- they also get hurt and feel pain and enjoy the pleasure of life. He also noted that it would cater no good to us since eating too much meat was bad for our health and it was the otherwise if we eat less or no meat at all. Moreover, he noted that it was not environmentally sound and inefficient to continuously raise animals for meat production since it was a very wasteful process. Singer imparted in his article that it was just equally immoral to perform experiments on non-humans and to eat their species. Singer did not find any difference between the two aside from the fact that there would be more significant outcome that could get in experimenting animals. Experiments on animals might result to additional understanding and knowledge as well as cures to diseases. However, Singer did not take it as an excuse and it was not justifiable to continue conducting experiments on animals. He noted that these experiments were just repetition and validation of previous experiments. Singer believed that people behind these experiments on animals were just doing the experiments for their own good and nothing else. However, Singer pointed out that if we were conducting experiments on animals, why we were not doing it also on humans. Experiments conducted only on animals were just simply discriminating their species since they could feel pain as any human. Animals should earn the same respect as we, humans, earn. Another form of speciesism aside from eating animal flesh and experimenting animal bodies for the advancement of science was determined by Singer as speciesism in modern philosophy. Singer noted that philosophy ought to present inquiries on the things that most people took for granted. However, philosophers at this age failed to query about the moral rights of sentient animals. Most philosophers presented the differences between human being and animals making it impossible to raise equality between the two species. They also presented equality in terms of human equality, and as the term suggested, non-humans though considered sentient, were disregarded when they mentioned or talked about equality. Singer assumed that the philosophers were discriminating the animals, since they did not exert any effort in bringing out the issue regarding equality between species. The other essay of Singer entitled â€Å"Human are Sentient Too†, also tackled the privilege of animals as a living creature to receive the consideration and rights that they ought to have. Singer mentioned again the term â€Å"speciesism† in this essay and claimed for the next time that all species were equal. He believed that the science world, especially the animal research was being unethical to the sentient animals. Singer noted that these researchers believed that animals were inferior to us only served as a tool that they could use to conduct researches and experimentation for the advancement of science. However, the animal liberation movement, especially Singer, did not accept their belief and considered them as immoral for letting the sentient animals to suffer and feel pain. Moreover, he believed that these researchers were violating the foundation of their knowledge and belief, The Theory of Evolution. The said theory entailed that we all existed in the planet due to unplanned evolution and all organisms existed were just equal; hence humans were not supposed to dominate the world. Considering the principle on the work of Jeremy Bentham, Singer came to think that it was possible to conduct experiments on animals and at the same time not causing them any pain or suffering. However, the science world still believed that we, humans, were superior and we were allowed of dominion over other species. And as a result, animal liberation movements were actively and continuously conducting demonstrations to show the society the inequality that they refused to see. However, Singer believed that the government and the science world, specifically the research institution were more responsible in making changes on the way the researches conduct experiments- researches and experiments without making violence on non-humans and preventing them to suffer and feel pain. In relation to the experiments being conduced on animals, there is another kind of technology that researchers invented in the mid-1970s that does not only involve plant species but also animal species. The new technology involves manipulating the genetic material of a species to modify the trait of that species and for it to have the desired trait. Researchers believed that modifying the trait of a certain species is the solution to some of the world’s problem such as starvation due to insufficient food supply, untreatable diseases and expensive medicines. The supporters of genetic engineering claimed that it is just like breeding a certain species. They also claimed that it is not unethical since nature itself did it through evolution. Evidence to the benefits of genetic engineering to our lives has long been reported. Genetically modified organisms are reported to solve the problems on various fields such as in medicine, agriculture, humanity and ecology. Genetic engineering has made dramatic progress on the said fields. Conversely, there are various groups that object genetic engineering. Religious critics, for an instance, believed that genetic engineering is against the statute and will of God. Moreover, they believed that life is so sacred that humans do not have the right to alter what the creator has given us. Other groups who object modifying the genetic code of species claimed that it is the dignity of the species to be modified that is at stake. It is not the right of anyone to violate the dignity not only of human kind but also of other life-forms. Meanwhile, critics of genetic engineering claim that it is unsafe and unethical to produce genetically modified crops since it may threaten the environment and the safety of human kind. Altering the genetic mode of organisms may lead to alteration of the balance in nature and may sequentially result to more serious problem. The world of science has not yet discovered the harmful effects of genetically modified organism hence it is too risky to depend so much on genetic engineering and deal ourselves with these â€Å"manufactured† organisms. When genetically modified organisms are released to the environment and in turn proven unsafe it will be impossible to recall these â€Å"manufactured† organisms. The society may allow the release of these organisms until we are guaranteed that it is safe and may not bring any hazard on our environment and our own health. Considering all the ideas and views of Singer on animal rights and equality and the facts regarding genetic engineering, though some are considerably absurd, it can be said that it is morally wrong to genetically modify non-humans or what we commonly call animals. It is beyond our ethical belief to alter what the creator has given us. Other species such as plant and animal also have sentience, capacities, self-consciousness and value. Sentient animals are not made for the sake of humanity; they exist in the planet for their own purpose- to live and enjoy the pleasure of life. Thus, humans are not licensed to lead the world and shall not bear in our minds that we are superior to the other life-forms. Humans are supposed to respect the existence of other species and give the consideration that these species shall earn from us otherwise; we do not deserve the rights and consideration that we are earning today. Humans enjoy the pleasure of life in this world and other life-forms might as well experience that pleasure of life. Humans, though given much more of the capabilities and knowledge that the other species failed to have, do not have sufficient right to dominate the world and do whatever they want to do to the other life-forms. As humans, given the opportunity to have higher faculty and self-consciousness, we are committed to take good care and preserve the world, as much as we could, as well as the other life-forms living in it. It is not that difficult for us to give the other life-forms the equality that we refuse to give them. All we need to do is to open eyes so we could have a clear outlook on the present situation of the sentient animals in our society today. In turn, we will realize and learn that their real role in this planet is not only to provide us sufficient nutritional requirements and a â€Å"tool† for research and but also to live and earn the respect and right that they have failed to earn from the very beginning. References Singer, P. 1972. Famine, Affluence, and Morality. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1, 229-243. Singer, P. 2000. All Animals Are Equal. Contemporary Moral Problems, 490-499. Singer, P. 2004, â€Å"Humans Are Sentient Too,† The Guardian.

Celies Life and Hard Times. :: English Literature

Celie's Life and Hard Times. Alice Walker vividly portrays the sad but apparent reality of life in the black rural communities of America during the mid-twentieth century. It is a time when the impacts of slavery are still prevalent. The relationships within families - as reflected in the novel - also feel this impact. In search of a means to overcome their inferiority in a society dominated by whites, men usually have their womenfolk provide them with the feeling of importance that they desire (such as the practice of addressing their husbands as Mr.______). This attitude towards women is made obvious on the very first page, depicting Celie's perception of her stepfather, "He never had a kine word to say to me. Just say You gonna do what your mammy wouldn't" (1). As Celie's life progresses, having given birth to two children - both of whom were taken away by her father - she is wed to Mr.______ unceremoniously. Pa, one the basis that she was too young, rejected the request for Nettie's hand in marriage to Mr.______. Instead he offers Celie, claiming she was the more viable candidate on the following grounds: She ugly. He say. But she ain't no stranger to hard work. And she clean. And God fixed her. You can do everything just like you want to and she ain't gonna make you feed it or clothe it. (9) Beginning from that day on Celie's life took an ever-downward sloping turn. She endures seeing Olivia with a new mother, the animosity of Harpo, taking care of Mr. ______'s children, and his abuse. Her relationship with Mr.______ is such that it could hardly be called a marriage. She was to do just as he said, without so much as uttering a word of disagreement. She no longer possesses a zeal for life: "My life stop when I left home . . ." (85). Each day is just another chore During this time Nettie had also experiences some trouble at home with Pa. After she realizes that to remain at home any longer would be a compromise to her safety she runs away to Mr.______'s home. There she is welcome since Mr.______ still thinks Nettie to be very attractive - but for a while only - as Nettie does not give in to his demands. When Mr.______ drives Nettie away, Celie experiences a loss so profound that it would take many years to undo the damage done. Up until that stage in Celie's life none had ever expressed any concern over herself. It was Nettie who ensured that Celie was literate, that Celie received an education, that Celie was not pushed around by

Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment Essay

Every single person has a personality that is unique to their persona, albeit they may look identical in appearance such as twins. Theories have been developed and fine-tuned throughout the last two centuries, and most notably by some of the more well-known psychologists of the last century. Alfred Alder, Carl Jung, and perhaps the most cited of the three theorizers is Sigmund Freud, compile three of the most noteworthy psychologists. Freud’s, Alder’s, and Jung’s theories may seem similar in several ways, but they are quite distinct from one another. Psychoanalytic Theories Freud characterizes the personality into three segments which are the id, ego and superego (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). Freud argued that the id, a Latin word or ‘it’, was the very basic instincts and motivations (often called impulses) with which humans, like animals, are born with. The id, acting on the pleasure principle, reduces its inner tension by satisfying its desires. The ego, also known as the ‘I’, acting upon the reality principle, aims to plan, act, and adopt to solve real issues that arise in the reality of this world. The ego tends to consistently place in check the desires and motivations of the id. The superego, also known as the ‘over I’, is the realization of societal structure that has been set in place by the parental units and entities of the social community. The superego has conscious and unconscious moral forces that is similar to the conscience, but the superego follows ethical guidelines unconsciously (2012). Alderâ₠¬â„¢s theory was more complex than that of Freud, whose id was focused on the pleasure principle and sexuality. Instead, Alder theorized that the personality stressed unique motivations of each person and the individual’s apparent role in the social order (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). Alder went on to develop the foundation for the identification of the superiority complex, inferiority complex,  organ inferiority, aggression drive, and masculine protest to name a few. Like the Freudian theory, the Jungian theory is also separates the human psyche into three different parts; the conscious ego, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). Jung’s conscious ego is similar to Freud’s ego, however Jung believed that the ego was the conscious personality and represents the sense of one’s self. The personal unconscious is host to the feelings and thoughts that are not part of one’s cognizant awareness. The collective unconscious is a more profound level of unconsciousness that entails emotional symbols known as archetypes. Jung referred to archetypes as the embodiment of interpersonal emotional reactions of repetitive events (2012). I agree with Alder’s theory that the personality stresses motivations that are unique to each person. I also agree with Freud’s theory that the ego is consistently placing the id in a reality check. However, I do not agree with Freud’s thoughts on humans being born with basic instincts such as those of animals. Furthermore, I do not agree in Jung’s theory of collective unconsciousness. Stages of Freud’s Theory The stages of Freud’s personality theory are oral, anal, phallic, latency period, and genital stages (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). According to Freud, the oral stage is driven the need to satisfy hunger and thirst. While some infants quickly move past the weaning and focus their libido into other challenges, others develop an oral fixation that may result in issues with attachment, dependency, and perhaps even substance abuse. The anal stage occurs mainly when the child is two to three years old and learns self-control over their bowel movements (2012). Some children learn this self-control early on leading to a healthy aspect of their personality. However, children fixated on the anal stage tend to overlearn it or fight attempts to manage their bowel movements which may lead to passive-aggressiveness, obstinacy, or stinginess in their adulthood. The phallic stage usually occurs by age six and is when sexual energy is fixated on the genitals (2012). In analyzing themselves, children explore with gender identity and masturbation. However, a fixation in this stage may lead to an Oedipus Complex, in which the boy conflicts with the father and attaches with the mother, or Penis Envy, in which a girl ponders why she  does not have a penis and attaches to the father. According to Freud, the latency period usually occurs between ages six and eleven. This is a period of the childhood that Freud believed was not significant to the child’s personality (2012). Instead, he believed that it was when sexual urges were not directly expressed, but rather channeled into daily activities. Lastly, the genital stage is when the child has reached adolescence, usually after age 12. It is in this stage that a non-fixated adolescent will live a well-adjusted adult life of courtship, marriage, and parenting. However, deviant experiences during childhood potentially produce a variety of personality issues as an adult (2012). Freudian Defense Mechanisms Repression is a defense mechanism that thrusts hostile or frightening thoughts into the unconscious (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). One of these types of repression is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Many of our military veterans are returning home with this sometimes debilitating condition. During a flight operation over Afghanistan a plane carrying 23 military personnel is shot repeatedly causing integrity issues to the fuselage. Although no one is injured, having to do emergency landing and repair before enemy troops can locate them can have life-lasting issues. Denial is a defense mechanism that causes reality to seem untrue, despite overwhelming facts or evidence (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). A parent comes home to find their young adult child with a syringe in their arm, unconscious, and unresponsive, calls 911. When asked by police, the parents deny any drug use or social issues, and add that their child was always a ‘good’ kid. Displacement is a defense mechanism that shifts the burden of an individual’s fears and desires upon someone or something else (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). A drunk father comes home, steps on a toy, and uses his belt to beat his 10 year old boy. The boy then goes to school the next day and bullies the smaller kids. In this case, the father and the son both displaced their anger and frustrations on others. Sublimation is a defense mechanism that enables us to act out unacceptable thoughts or impulses through adequate behavior (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). Someone that is angry or frustrated may choose to go to the gym and get a rigorous workout, thereby releasing that anger or frustration. Conclusion Freud, Adler, and Jung were psychologists that shared a similar belief and passion in deciphering personality concept. However, they also disagreed on the fundamentals of such personality constructs. Freud believed that the personalities developed through psychosexual development. Whereas, Adler believed in the more complex development through individual psychology. Even so, Jung believed in a deeper level of the psyche that involved emotional archetypes. Each of these theories has provided great progress in modern psychology and understanding of the personalities of each individual. While each of the theories may have flaws, each of the theories has its own merits that are noteworthy. Reference Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2012). Personality: Classic theories and modern research (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Mergers and acquisitions continue to be made when so many fail Essay

Critically evaluate why so many mergers and acquisitions continue to be made when so many fail. The phenomenon of mergers and acquisitions (M&A’s) triggers an array of opinions and viewpoints. Often it is a strategy that is seen as a perfect way of achieving growth. It is by no means an organic or natural route to success, but has tended to be a quick and easy way of increasing an organisations size and power. However although there has been ‘waves’ of popularity and success since its introduction in the 1960’s it has also suffered criticism due to the amount of failures it has accounted for. Despite the strong suggestion that this strategy has been the architect for many an organisations downfall there still remains a propensity in the current business environment for managers to adopt it. Throughout this essay I am going to examine some of the areas that explain M&A’s volatility and attempt to discover why managers are persevering with the strategy when it is seemingly flawed. Over the last few decades it has become increasing apparent that the effect of mergers and acquisitions is not as beneficial as once thought. When the growth strategy was pioneered in the middle part of the nineteen hundreds it was looked upon as a way of creating an empire across different sectors and countries. Many experienced managers were sucked into the strategy, only having eyes for the apparent synergistical and positive affects of M&A’s. Although over the following years there has been many success stories concerning M&A’s, when the big picture is examined it displays a more ugly side of the phenomenon. Hodge (1998) discovered that ‘in the go-go ’80s, 37% of mergers outperformed the average shareholder return in that period; in the first half of the ’90s, that figure rose to 54%’. Despite the encouraging increase during the early ’90s there remains a disturbing reality that ‘barely one-half of the m&a deals of recent years delivered shareholder value that outperformed even the relevant industry average, much less provided an adequate return on investment’. Added to this he also highlighted that ‘only a paltry 25% of deals valued at 30% or more of the acquirer’s annual revenues could be counted as success’. These statistics represent the flaws that exist within the strategy of M&A’s and clash with the positive theory that ‘analysts and investors expect the merged enterprises to be greater than the sum of its parts’ (Doitte and Smith 1998). Coopers and Lybrand (1993) along with many other writers have studied and expanded on some of the key factors that limit that usefulness of M&A’s. Target management attitudes and cultural differences ‘heads the list of impediments to the successful melding of two organisations’ (Davenport 1998). This is appropriate not only in the case of cross-border mergers (Daimler Benz-Chrysler) where there many obvious points of concern such as language and communication, but also within the collaboration of firms based in the same country and even industry. Management often have their own ‘way of working’ that suits both themselves and their employees, which may be generated through national or corporate culture. This is generally characterised by unique and individual working practices amongst different firms nation and worldwide. Therefore when a merger or acquisition takes place the result is the combining of two sets of cultures in an attempt to work together. In most cases the merge looks both safe and profitable in theory, however management frequently underestimate the power of culture. For example when Mellon Bank and the Boston Co merged in 1993 they failed to consider how ‘cultural conflict could drain the combined company of its most important acquired asset of the talents of Boston Co.’s money-management wizards. Offended by Mellon’s cost-conscious management style, a key executive left the organisation. Within the next three months, he had taken 30 of his co-workers with him, along with $3.5 billion assets and many of the firm’s clients’ (Davenport 1998). I think this example emphasizes the risk associated with M&A’s due to their inevitable degree of unpredictability. For this reason alone it is hard to imagine a full proof argument advocating their use in modern business. Another factor that makes M&A’s a high-risk strategy is the fact that management often have limited knowledge of the industry they are entering. This is obviously the case when two firms from unrelated backgrounds merge (conglomerate integration). In this case management are unaware of the way the industry works and are restricted to simply understanding the bare bones of the business. ‘Differences in traditions, expectations, buying and specification practices, packaging, logistics, labelling, and legal customs and issues can have a surprisingly profound impact on the post-acquisition viability of a target company’ (Price and Sloane 1998). These differences along with more obvious changes such as product, market and customers make life awkward for management. In most industries it takes time to develop and form bonds with suppliers, customers and even local communities. These types of bonds are usually a result of personal relationships and even friendships that have grown through dealings and negotiations over a long period. M&A’s break up many of these ties across the industry and leave new management with the task to start fresh alliances. In many cases the change is not well received and an organisation that essentially is unchanged in terms of its core activities can fail. The art of creating a post-acquisition integration plan is also extremely important, but is difficult to master. ‘Unfortunately, for many companies, it is this phase that the deal fails because the parties focus too much on the financial aspect of the merger or acquisition without adequately addressing the people components that must be considered to forge two organizations into one cohesive entity’ (Doitte and Smith 1998). Employees are often neglected through the process of M&A’s and even if attention is given to them there is generally a lack of meaningful consultation. Although it is an area that is very tricky to get right from a managerial perspective it is vital if the strategy is to succeed. ‘If managers of each company shut themselves off from their employees, employees will feel adrift. Employees’ resulting low morale and lack of direction will lead to high personnel turnover’ (Heitner 1998). This is simply another factor, which makes the strategy of M&A’s so difficult to implement and along with the previously mentioned problematic areas explains why their success rate is only around 50%. However despite the fact that many investment bankers and journalists believe the difference between their success and failure is ‘a coin toss at best’ (Davenport 1998) organisations continue to utilise them. A major reason behind M&A’s continued use is the amount of advantages an organisation can potentially gain by undergoing a successful merger or acquisition. Although there are many risks and pitfalls involved when the strategy is undertaken management clearly believe the prospective benefits outweigh these possible drawbacks. In modern business globalisation has in many cases become a necessity rather than a luxury. Firms are now desperate to expand into foreign countries in order for them to compete in uninhabited lucrative markets and increase their competitive advantage. If global markets are entered successfully it gives organisations the chance to exploit resources, synergies and opportunities. However there is also a sense that in the global marketplace ‘bigger is better’ (Doitte and Smith 1998) and firms have to be of a certain size to be able to compete. In order to break into global markets organisations need to grow and often quickly so ground is not lost on competitors. In this situation M&A’s are the most attractive option for managers. They represent a ‘leap’ approach whereby firms can experience this desired growth rapidly. Managers are aware that it is the growth strategy that carries the highest risk, but often feel they have little choice. The modern busin ess world demands innovation and expansion and if companies stand still they will simply get left behind. Firms often use M&A’s as a way of diversifying. A well-executed diversification strategy can widen an organisations product portfolio and therefore spread an organisations risk. This means entering different markets in order to reduce dependence upon current products and customers. Selling a range of different products to various groups of consumers will mean that if any one product fails, sales of the other products should keep the business healthy. As a result firms in this situation are less susceptible in market downturns and recessions. It is unlikely that a slump occurs in two diverse markets, but even in a case of a recession, where there are generally negative affects across the board, the organisation with added critical mass is in a better position to weather the crisis. The simplest way for management to achieve this diversification is to merge or takeover another company. It saves time and money being spent developing new products for markets in which the firm may have no expertise. Richard Branson and Virgin has been a major exponent of this over the last decade. His brand now covers air travel, music and even soft drinks! This is a perfect example how M&A’s can produce multi-million pound empires extremely quickly. However many organisations can become influenced by such stories and attempt to mirror the success without fully understanding whether it’s the right move in their own business situation. Market power is also a reason firms adopt M&A’s. This is usually generated when two competitors in the same market merge in what is called horizontal integration. The potential benefits for the purchaser are extremely attractive and hard to ignore. There is huge scope for cost cutting by eliminating duplication of sales force, distribution and marketing overheads and by improved capacity utilisation. There is also the opportunity for major economies of scale and increased prices due to the reduction in competition. Coca-Cola achieved this type of acquisition when taking over Orangina, a distinctive product with very strong distribution in France. Here Coca-Cola identified Orangina’s customer base as one that they struggled to attract and decided for them to increase their market power they needed to acquire the brand. However, this is by no means the correct move for all firms. The merge between car manufacturers Daimler Benz and Chrysler has been ridden with problems since its launch in 1998. Sometimes a merge in this way creates twice the size, but double the problems. Similar to the idea of joining forces with a competitor to gain market power, management can undertake a merger or acquisition to ‘block’ competitors in doing so. This tactic usually comes in the form of a vertical integration where one firm takes over or merges with another at a different stage in the production process, but within the same industry. An example of this is brewery Whitbread’s purchase of restaurant chain Beefeater. This type of M&A does not only guarantee outlets for your products or develop closer links with suppliers, it can also go some way to freezing out the threat of competitors. However it is not wise for management to undertake a merge with the sole intention to damage competitors. It is important, first and foremost, that the strategy has synergistical affects for them the acquirer as otherwise it may struggle. As I have highlighted there are undoubted gains offered by successful M&A’s. These attractive advantages can often persuade managers, sometimes wrongly, to implement a mergers or acquisitions of their own. The hope is that their organisation can in practice reap the rewards that the theory says is possible. The reality is that many fail because the strategy is mismatch with other objectives and inappropriate in their current position. Despite managements good intentions their judgement has been clouded by the large potential gains M&A’s can offer. However it is not always the case that management adopt the strategy strictly because of the apparent advantages it can for their firm. There is a school of thought that justifiably believes that top management frequently have ulterior motives when adopting M&A’s. The belief is that decisions made concerning them are not necessarily in the main interests of the organisation, but more centred on what is best for them as individuals. As a result managers may proceed with poor value acquisitions in order to meet personal goals or even objectives they think ‘should’ be met. The ’empire-building syndrome’ is a main contributor here. As an organisation grows it becomes a more important player in its industry. Naturally as the size and power of the firm increases as does the importance of its management and with this comes higher remuneration and social status. Also ‘executive compensation may increase as a result of an increase in firm size, even when there is no corresponding increase in shareholders’ wealth’ (Jenson 1986). It is clear that a merger or acquisition strategy can work well for top management regardless of its overall success for the firm. In the same way management can be influenced by prospective financial and prestige rewards, they may also be interested in satisfying their self-fulfilment goals. In low growth markets management can feel they are not exhausting their full energy and talents. In order for them to experience this type of self or job fulfilment they may choose to grow their firm via a merger or acquisition. This may present the perfect challenge for management, but not necessarily ideal challenge for their organisation. Finally job security is also an important managerial motive. A merger or acquisition can diverse risk and minimise the costs of financial distress and that of bankruptcy. This added stability helps prevent an organisation becoming an acquisition target themselves. Although the decision might not be in the best interests of the firm and shareholders, management solidify their own position. Along with the other negative managerial motives they represent a clear reason why M&A’s continue to be used in the light of so many failures. In conclusion I feel the topic of M&A’s and the reasons behind their sustained use in business is now much clearer. It is initially very difficult to fathom any organisation adopting a strategy that only has a success rate of around 50%. Dominant factors such culture and management inexperience seem to make any merger or acquisition an uphill struggle. However when the topic is examined closer the reasons behind these decisions are more obvious. In the modern business environment businesses are constantly looking to better themselves and stay one-step ahead of competition. It is wrong to claim that as a result organisations are forced into strategies that stimulate rapid growth, but there is a definite feeling that factors such as globalisation and increased market power are the best route to success. As these are two hallmarks of the M&A phenomenon it is no real surprise that management frequently decide that it might be their best strategy regardless of their poor success rate. It is this risk taking mentality, that has become a characteristic of 21st century management, allied with the more cynical decision making habits some managers have adopted has kept the use of M&A’s high. Added to the fact that in the right context M&A’s can be an efficient and highly profitable growth strategy it is easy to see how they have had and will continue to have a great use in business regardless of their failures. Bibliography Textbooks Glanville & Belton (1998) ‘M&A’s are transforming the World’ Ivey Business Journal, Autumn; Customer text-section 2, topic 11. Kieran et al (1994) ‘Planning the deals that generate value and gain advantage’, Mergers and Acquisitions, March-April; Custom text, topic 12. Journals Doitte S & Smith G (1998). ‘The morning after (avoiding mistakes in acquisitions and mergers)’. Winter v63 i2 p32(8). Davenport, T (1998). ‘The Integration Challenge (managing corporate mergers’ Management Review. Heitner M (1998). ‘The thorny business of merging rival firms’, Mergers and Acquisitions. Hodge, K (1998), ‘The art of the post deal (outcomes of mergers)’. Management Review. Price, A & Sloane, J (1998). ‘Global Designs: Tough Challenges for Acquirers’. Mergers and Acquisitions.. Whipple J & Frankel R (2000), ‘Strategic Alliance Success Factors’. The Journal of Supply Chain Management.

Free Essays on Dr. Jeckel And Mr. Hyde

The story of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is one that would have the most intelligent person thinking out loud to himself, â€Å"What the heck is going on in this story?† The way the story flows is in many ways, like a suspense movie where the audience wonders what will happen next or who the killer might be, but the question that this reader needed an answer to was â€Å"Who in the world was Mr. Hyde?† Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde began with a lawyer, Mr. Utterson, talking with his cousin, Mr. Enfield, about a detestable looking man, Mr. Hyde, who had stomped on a young girl and thought nothing of it. Mr. Hyde was a man, that just by the mere sight of him, any human being would be disgusted. The author gave the reader no chance in ever liking Mr. Hyde because not only did he commit a heinous act when he stomped over this little girl and not look back, but at the same time, Mr. Hyde was a secretive man whose face the reader could not see, but when the reader did get a visual from the story, it was detestable because that is what the author described. The author describes Mr. Hyde as â€Å"something wrong with his appearance; something displeasing, something downright detestable. I never saw a man I so disliked, and yet I scarce know why. He must be deformed somewhere; he gives a strong feeling of deformity, although I couldn’t specify the point. He’s an extraordinary looking man, and yet I really can name nothing out of the way. No sir; I can make no hand of it; I can’t describe him. And it’s not want of memory; for I declare I can see him this moment† (Stevenson, p. 282). With a description like that, would anyone want to be around a human being like that? More than likely the answer would be no. So the description of Mr. Hyde early on turns the reader off to Mr. Hyde no matter what is said later on in the story. The question remained, who was Mr. Edward Hyde? It seemed to Mr. Utterson that only Dr. Henry Jekyll could answer t... Free Essays on Dr. Jeckel And Mr. Hyde Free Essays on Dr. Jeckel And Mr. Hyde The story of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is one that would have the most intelligent person thinking out loud to himself, â€Å"What the heck is going on in this story?† The way the story flows is in many ways, like a suspense movie where the audience wonders what will happen next or who the killer might be, but the question that this reader needed an answer to was â€Å"Who in the world was Mr. Hyde?† Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde began with a lawyer, Mr. Utterson, talking with his cousin, Mr. Enfield, about a detestable looking man, Mr. Hyde, who had stomped on a young girl and thought nothing of it. Mr. Hyde was a man, that just by the mere sight of him, any human being would be disgusted. The author gave the reader no chance in ever liking Mr. Hyde because not only did he commit a heinous act when he stomped over this little girl and not look back, but at the same time, Mr. Hyde was a secretive man whose face the reader could not see, but when the reader did get a visual from the story, it was detestable because that is what the author described. The author describes Mr. Hyde as â€Å"something wrong with his appearance; something displeasing, something downright detestable. I never saw a man I so disliked, and yet I scarce know why. He must be deformed somewhere; he gives a strong feeling of deformity, although I couldn’t specify the point. He’s an extraordinary looking man, and yet I really can name nothing out of the way. No sir; I can make no hand of it; I can’t describe him. And it’s not want of memory; for I declare I can see him this moment† (Stevenson, p. 282). With a description like that, would anyone want to be around a human being like that? More than likely the answer would be no. So the description of Mr. Hyde early on turns the reader off to Mr. Hyde no matter what is said later on in the story. The question remained, who was Mr. Edward Hyde? It seemed to Mr. Utterson that only Dr. Henry Jekyll could answer t... Free Essays on Dr. Jeckel And Mr. Hyde The story of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is one that would have the most intelligent person thinking out loud to himself, â€Å"What the heck is going on in this story?† The way the story flows is in many ways, like a suspense movie where the audience wonders what will happen next or who the killer might be, but the question that this reader needed an answer to was â€Å"Who in the world was Mr. Hyde?† Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde began with a lawyer, Mr. Utterson, talking with his cousin, Mr. Enfield, about a detestable looking man, Mr. Hyde, who had stomped on a young girl and thought nothing of it. Mr. Hyde was a man, that just by the mere sight of him, any human being would be disgusted. The author gave the reader no chance in ever liking Mr. Hyde because not only did he commit a heinous act when he stomped over this little girl and not look back, but at the same time, Mr. Hyde was a secretive man whose face the reader could not see, but when the reader did get a visual from the story, it was detestable because that is what the author described. The author describes Mr. Hyde as â€Å"something wrong with his appearance; something displeasing, something downright detestable. I never saw a man I so disliked, and yet I scarce know why. He must be deformed somewhere; he gives a strong feeling of deformity, although I couldn’t specify the point. He’s an extraordinary looking man, and yet I really can name nothing out of the way. No sir; I can make no hand of it; I can’t describe him. And it’s not want of memory; for I declare I can see him this moment† (Stevenson, p. 282). With a description like that, would anyone want to be around a human being like that? More than likely the answer would be no. So the description of Mr. Hyde early on turns the reader off to Mr. Hyde no matter what is said later on in the story. The question remained, who was Mr. Edward Hyde? It seemed to Mr. Utterson that only Dr. Henry Jekyll could answer t...

Analyze the handover between two WLAN, two Wimax and two UMTS networks

Analyze the handover between two WLAN, two Wimax and two UMTS networks ABSTRACT In recent years, telecommunication has flourished extensively so much that several areas of studies coexist now thanks to multiple technologies. One of them is heterogeneous handover which is a concept that aims to provide continuity of connection while crossing different networks. In this thesis, our main objective is to analyze the handover between two WLAN, two Wimax and two UMTS networks. The vertical handover decision is taken on the basis of various algorithms such as variance-based algorithm, taguchi algorithm, which calculates the variance of parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth and packet loss for the above networks, and selection of the network having most parameters with minimum score. These algorithms are calculated and the decision factors for each wireless network are compared, in order to detect and trigger a vertical handover. The factors can be classified as beneficial, i.e., the larger, the better, or on the basis of cost, i.e., the lower, the better. This algorithm is also compared with other algorithms such as MEW (Multiplicative experiment weighting), SAW (Simple Additive Weighting), TOPOSIS (Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution) and GRA (Grey Relational Analysis). These algorithms are appropriate for different traffic classes. Simulation results for the proposed algorithm in Matlab is discussed and compared with other multiple attribute decision making algorithms on the basis of bandwidth, jitter, delay etc. It can be seen that the proposed algorithm causes the minimum packet delay than others. Jitter is also comparatively less than other algorithms. Besides, it provides the highest bandwidth than any other MADM algorithm. Keywords:-UMTS, SAW, MEW, GRA, TOPSIS, WLAN and Wimax Chapter-1 Introduction 1.1 History of mobile services ‘ The journey of mobile telephony began with the 1st generation services. The design for it was developed by AMPS (Advanced mobile phone system) in 1970 and it is based on analog cellular technology. The data bandwidth provided by the system was just 1.9 kbps and it used TDMA multiplexing. Then, the 2nd generation of mobile services was introduced in 1981.The 2G systems are still largely used for voice calls. The data bandwidth provided was 14.4 kbps [1] and the technology used was TDMA and CDMA. It is based on digital technology and also provided short messaging services or SMS along with voice communication. Similarly, it provided circuit switched data communication services at low speed. In 1999, the technology switched to 2.5 G, which used GPRS, EDGE as the standards. It provided higher throughput for data service up to 384 kbps. Later, in 2002, the 3G services were introduced, providing high quality audio, video and data services. Which also provided broadband data capabilities up to 2 Mbps. It mainly uses packet switched technology which utilizes the bandwidth more efficiently. In 2010, when 4th generation of cellular technology was introduced, it was expected to complement and replace the 3G networks. The key features of 4G mobile networks is that it can deliver information anywhere and anytime using seamless connection.4G network is an IP based network which gives access through collection of various radio interfaces. Its network provides access to best possible service with seamless handoff, combining multiple radio interfaces into a single network for subscriber to use. Thus, users have different services with an increased coverage. It does not matter whether there is failure or loss of one or more networks, the 4G technology keeps all the networks integrated into IP based system, which require vertical handoff for seamless connection between the networks. As the number of users are responsible for enhancing the qu ality of 4G service, the very process becomes an indispensable component. While the 4G technology has its genesis in the idea of invasive computing, software defined radio is the prominent adhesive behind the entire process. Here the software defined radio is programmable and able to transmit and receive a wide range of frequencies while emulating any transmission format. It should offer high speed of 100 Mbits for stationary mobile and 20 Mbits while travelling having network capacity 10 times faster than 3G networks. This increases the download speed to 1 second for 1Mbyte of file compared to 200 seconds in 3G networks. Which should support fast speed volume data transmission at lower cost. The obviously it should provide seamless connection between multiple wireless networks and mobile networks. For this, the support of vertical handoff is essential. Apart from it, it is expected that seamless multimedia services are provided it being an IP-based system, which also replaces SS7 (signaling system 7) that consumes considerable amount of bandwidth. Due to IP-based network, optimum usage of bandwidth is expected. 1.2 Motivation ‘ There are several communication systems such as the Ethernet, Wireless LAN, GPRS and 3G coexisting with their own different characteristics such as bandwidth, delay and cost. Wireless mobile users require high quality of service (QoS) and one of the factors directly affecting QoS is the number of call drops. Therefore, it has to be reduced or eliminated, possibly, to achieve high QoS. The number of call drops experienced by a system mainly depends on its channel assignment and handoff schemes. Since majority of WLANs are deployed in the areas like hotels, cafes, airports, offices, etc, the speed of the users are generally normalized within the WLAN coverage area. In WLAN/Cellular network interworking, a user can either have access from micro layer or from macro layer of cellular network depending whether he wants slow or fast speed. Basically, in cellular networks, user speed is the primary factor to determine whether a user is fast or slow and that information is subsequently used to handle vertical handoff. Since the speed information about the users are not directly available when they are in WLAN coverage area ,the vertical handoff schemes employed in cellular networks are not directly suitable for solving vertical handoff problem in Cellular/WLAN interworking. This raises to many important questions. Assume that the speed of each user in a WLAN coverage area is within small threshold value. Normally, when a user is outside WLAN coverage area, the type of user whether fast or slow, is determined on the basis of the user speed. Now the question is how to determine the type of user, whether fast or slow, when it is within the WLAN coverage area? A fast user can become slow temporarily due to various conditions such as traffic signals, turns, etc. Is the speed alone sufficient to determine whether a user is slow or fast? If not then (i) What other parameters can be used to determine whether a user is fast or slow and, ii) How can they be obtained? In fact, this lack of clarity inspired the researcher to develop a vertical Handoff decision algorithm to solve vertical handoff problems. 1.3 Scope of thesis ‘ With greater mobility and easy acces, telecommunication consumers have become demanding, seeking services anywhere and anytime. Thus, the integration of WLAN (Wireless LAN), Wimax and cellular networks such as WCDMA (wideband CDMA) system should be error free for seamless efficient communication which is the 4th generation technology. The seamless and efficient handover between different access technologies known as vertical handover is essential and remains a challenging problem. The 4G is seen as convergence and integration of various wireless access technologies. The existing cellular systems such as GSM and CDMA2000 support low bandwidth over a large coverage area. However, the wireless networks such as WLAN supports high bandwidth over a short coverage area. Moreover one of the major design issues of 4G is the support of vertical handover. Interestingly this is different from a ‘horizontal handoff’ between different wireless access points that use the same technology. Switching between two dissimilar networks for mobile terminal (e.g. between UMTS WLAN) is termed as Vertical Handover A vertical handover involves two different network interfaces for different wireless technologies. It can happen in two ways. Firmly when the mobile user moves into the network that has higher bandwidth and limited coverage, a vertical handover request is generated since the mobile user may want to change its connection to the higher bandwidth network to enjoy the higher bandwidth service. This type of vertical handover is called downward vertical handoff. Secondly when the mobile user moves out of its serving higher bandwidth network, it has to request a vertical handover to change its connection to the network with low bandwidth and wide coverage. This type of vertical handover is called upward vertical handover. Chapter-2 Research objectives 2.1 Objectives The present research aims at making comparison between various existing multiple attribute decision making algorithms for realization of vertical handoff such as MEW (Multiplicative Exponent Weighting), SAW (Simple Additive weighting), TOPSIS (Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solutions) and GRA (Grey relational Analysis) which are MADM (Multiple attribute decision making) ranking algorithms and the proposed vertical decision algorithm. For this comparison, various heterogeneous networks such as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication services), WLAN (Wireless Local area networks), WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability for microwave access) need to be taken into consideration. Comparison will be mostly on the basis of various parameters such as bandwidth, jitter, packet delay, packet loss, etc. In addition, the comparison may be for different types of traffics such as data connections and voice connections. As all the above mentioned algorithms are multiple attribute algorithm, due importance is given to parameters to be considered in the algorithms. The performance evaluation of the proposed decision algorithm should be done on the basis of parameters mentioned above. For various types of traffics, how the algorithm performs can be seen. Depending on the performance, we can conclude Which algorithm is suitable for which traffics. In voice connections, 70 % importance is given to the packet delay and jitter i.e. by assigning weights to these parameters and equal distribution of weights to the other parameters or attributes. If any of the algorithms performs well then that particular algorithm can be considered to be best suited for voice connections. In da ta connections, 70% importance is given to the parameters such as bandwidth i.e. by assigning the weight to the bandwidth and remaining weight is equally distributed among the parameters. If any of the algorithm performs well in this case, then the particular algorithm is suitable for the data connections. The ultimate aim being development of a decision making algorithm which works well for both voice connections and data connections. ‘ 2.2 Methodology In order to realize vertical handoff using the existing multiple attribute decision making algorithm and evaluate the performance of each of the algorithms along with the proposed algorithm, we are considering the selection of network in 4G environment. Here, three types of networks such as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication services), WLAN (Wireless Local area networks), WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability for microwave access) are combined and there will be two networks of each type. In this thesis, four decision criteria are evaluated and compared to realize vertical handoff considering the available bandwidth (Mbps), packet delay (ms), packet jitter and packet loss (per 106 packets). The range of value for various parameters are as follows: Available bandwidth for UMTS network 0.1-2Mbps, Packet delay for UMTS network 25-50ms, Jitter for UMTS network 5-10ms. Bandwidth for WLAN network 1-54Mbps, Packet delay for WLAN network 100-150ms, Jitter for WLAN network 10-20ms. Bandwidth for Wimax network is 1-60Mbps, while for packet delay for Wimax network is 60-100ms, and Jitter for Wimax network is 3-10ms.The values for the weights to be assigned for different services are considered as Case1: packet delay and jitter are given 70 % importance and the rest is equally distributed among other parameters, this case is suited for voice connections and whereas Case 2: available bandwidth is given as 70% importance, this case is suited for data connections. For each algorithm, 10 vertical decisions were considered of each case separately. Performance evaluation is done for two cases namely voice connections and data connections. These cases are evaluated using MATLAB v7.6 release 2009 software tool. Next, by using artificial neural network, we can design a system to take vertical handoff decision. Here, input parameters such as samples of received signal strength and bandwidth is applied to input layer, hidden layer does some processing depending upon the number of neurons and the algorithm chosen. The output layer gives the ID of selected candidate network. In, ANN-based method, there is handoff between WLAN and Cellular networks. Here, two parameters are taken into consideration i.e. RSS a Bandwidth as an input for neural network. The RSS samples for training neural network for both WLAN cellular networks are -60dBm,-70 dBm,-80 dBm,-90 dBm. Similarly, bandwidth samples for WLAN are 54, 30,10,1 Mbps. Bandwidth samples for cellular network are 14.4, 9.6, 4.5,2 kbps. By using combination of RSS bandwidth parameters, we could make 256 samples of input for ANN. These samples of output samples for vertical handoff decision are also fed to ANN. Using Levenberg-Marquardt method for ANN, 180 samples are used for training, 38 samples for validation and 38 samples for testing. Based on ANN developed system, it could take vertical handoff decision from cellular to WLAN. Lastly, ns-2 software tool can also be used. NS-2 simulation is done using nodes of 802.11 and nodes of 802.16 Wimax. Four nodes of 802.11 nodes (Access points) are used and four nodes of 802.16 nodes (Base station) NIST module of 802.16e are used in ns-2. In this case, out of the existing algorithm best algorithm with best score is selected for triggering vertical handoff decision. Here, in this case, various parameters such as Bandwidth, Bit error rate, trust level etc were considered for vertical handoff decision. This can be tested against various available traffics in ns2 such as CBR (Constant bit rate) which corresponds to real time traffic (for voice communication) and FTP (file transfer Protocol) which corresponds to non real time traffic. The performance evaluation for various traffics can be done on various parameters such as Packet delivery ratio, throughput, jitter and packet dropping ratio etc with simulation time. 2.3 Related Work Enrique Stevens Navarro and Vincent W.S.Wong [2], in their paper, have compared four different vertical handoff decision algorithm namely, MEW (Multiplicative Exponent Weighting), SAW (Simple Additive Weighting), TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution), and GRA (Grey Relational Analysis). All four algorithms allow different parameters (e.g., bandwidth, delay, packet loss rate, cost) to be considered for vertical handoff decision [2]. Both Authors found that MEW, SAW, and TOPSIS provide almost the same performance to all four traffic classes. Only GRA gives a slightly higher bandwidth and lower delay for interactive and background traffic classes. Jose.D.Martinez, Ulises Pinedo-Rico and Enrique Stevens Navarro, in their paper, have given a comparative analysis of the multiple attribute decision algorithms [3]. In this paper, the authors provided a simulation study of several vertical handoff decision algorithms in order to understand its performance for different user applications. They considered two different applications: voice and data connections. Algorithms such as SAW (Simple Additive Weighting) and TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) are suitable for voice connections. These algorithms provided the lower values of jitter and delay packet available in a 4G wireless network. In a data connection case, GRA (Grey Relational Analysis) and MEW (Multiplicative Exponent Weighting) algorithms provided the solution with highest available bandwidth necessary for this application. Chapter-3 Classification of vertical handoff algorithms 3.1 Need for vertical handoff Currently, the trend in mobile communications is not one network technology replacing another, but the interoperability between different overlapping networks. Therefore it is obvious that many wireless networks will coexist and can complement each other in an all-IP based heterogeneous wireless network. This can facilitate mobile users’ access to internet easily and connectivity of IP anywhere, anytime using the ‘best’ possible network. This is mainly due to the fact that different wireless networking technologies have their own advantages and drawbacks. Access to various wireless systems results in heterogeneous networks that can offer overlapping coverage of multiple networks with different technologies. For example, low cost and high speed Wi-Fi (WLAN) network will be accessible within limited range of ‘hot-spot’ areas and will be complimented with cellular network offering wide area coverage such as UMTS or Wimax. As a consequence, some fundament al problems must be solved for the users to navigate a 4G wireless network seamlessly. For this, mobile terminal equipped with multiple interfaces to handle different technologies is required. Furthermore, applications running on mobile terminal with multi-mode terminals in a 4G environment can switch between different networks supporting different technologies without degrading the quality of the link. But the Internet routing model forces mobile terminal to find new IP address for an interface while roaming in another network in 4G environment. It is assumed that applications can easily manage mobility and can handoff to the best possible network; of course some method is required to adjust media streams to the bandwidth available. 3.1 Types of vertical handoff There are various ways to classify vertical handoff algorithms. In this thesis, we have classified the vertical handoff algorithms into four groups based on the handoff criteria as given below: RSS-based algorithms: RSS is used as the main handoff decision criteria in this group. Different strategies have been developed to compare the RSS of the present point of attachment. In this RSS-based horizontal handoff decision, strategies are classified into the following six subcategories namely: relative received signal strength, relative received signal strength with threshold, relative received signal strength with hysteresis and threshold, and prediction techniques. For vertical handoff decision, relative received signal strength cannot be applicable since the signal strength from different types of networks cannot be compared directly due to the different technologies involved. For example, different thresholds for different networks. Furthermore, other network parameters such as bandwidth are combined with RSS in the vertical handoff decision process. Bandwidth-based algorithms: Available bandwidth for a mobile terminal is the main criterion in this group. In some algorithms, both bandwidth and signal strength information are used in the decision process. Depending on whether RSS or bandwidth is the main criteria an algorithm is categorized either as signal strength based or bandwidth based. Cost function based algorithms: This class of algorithms combine metrics such as monetary cost, security, bandwidth and power consumption in a cost function based algorithm, and the handoff decision is made by comparing the score of this function for the candidate networks. Different weights are allotted to the different input parameters depending on the network conditions and user preferences. ANN and fuzzy logic based algorithms: These vertical handoff decision algorithms attempt to use richer set of inputs than others for making handoff decisions. When a large number of inputs are used, it is very difficult or impossible to develop, formulate handoff decision processes. Analytically hence, it is better to apply machine learning techniques to formulate the processes. The survey reveals that for the fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks based techniques can be used. The Fuzzy logic systems allow expertise of humans for qualitative thinking to be incorporated as algorithms to enhance the efficiency. If there exists comprehensive set of input-desired output pattern, artificial neural networks can be trained to create handoff decision algorithms. By using consistent and real-time learning techniques, the systems can monitor their performance and change their own structure to create very effective handoff decision algorithms. 3.3.1 RSS based vertical handoff In this, the handoff decisions are made by comparing RSS (received signal strength) of the current network with the preset threshold values. These algorithms are less complex and may be combined with other parameters such as bandwidth, cost etc to have a better handover decisions. We describe here three RSS based algorithms in the following sections. A) ALIVE-HO (adaptive lifetime based vertical handoff ) algorithm – Zahran, Chen and Sreenan proposed algorithm for handover between 3G networks and WLAN by combining the RSS with an estimated lifetime (duration over which the current access technology remains beneficial to the active applications). ALIVE-HO always uses an uncongested network whenever available. It continues using the preferred network (i.e. WLAN) as long as it satisfies the QoS requirements of the application [5]. Two different vertical handoff scenarios let us discuss: Moving out of the preferred network (MO) and Moving in to the preferred network (MI), where the preferred network is usually the underlay network that provides better and economical service. Hence, extending the utilization of WLAN as long as it provides satisfactory performance is the main consideration of vertical handoff algorithm design. We observe the method through the following scenarios. In the first scenario, when the MT moves away from the coverage area of a WLAN into a 3G cell, a handover to the 3G network is initiated. The handover is done under following conditions: (a) RSS average of the WLAN falls below predefined threshold. (MO threshold) and (b) the estimated lifetime is at least equal to the required handoff signaling delay. The MT continuously calculates the RSS mean using the moving average method.[4] [K] = Here [k] is RSS mean at time instant k, and Wav is the window size, a variable that changes with velocity of the velocity of mobile terminal. Then, the lifetime metric EL [k] is calculated by using [k], ASST Application signal strength threshold),S[k],RSS change rate. EL[k] = [k] ‘ ASST S[k] ASST (Application signal strength threshold) chosen to satisfy the requirements of the active applications. S[K] represents RSS decay rate. In second scenario, when the MT moves towards a WLAN cell, the handover to the WLAN is done if the average RSS is larger than MI Threshold. WLAN and the available bandwidth of the WLAN meet the bandwidth requirement of the application. Table 3.1 given below shows lost frames during the handoff transition area for the received stream. ASST (in dBs) -90 -89 -88 -87 -86 -85 Lost frames_100kbit/s 13.3 5 3 0.67 0 0 Lost frames_300kbit/s 38 28 4 0.33 0 0 Table 3.1 Frames lost corresponding to ASST [5] Based on the results obtained and subjective testing, the optimal value for UDP based streaming is chosen as -86dB. Firstly by introducing EL[k], the algorithm adapts to the application requirements and reduces unnecessary handovers. Secondly, there is an improvement on the average throughput for user because MT prefers to stay in WLAN cell as long as possible. However, packet delay grows due to the critical fading impact near the cell edges, which may result in severe degradation in the user perceived QoS. This phenomenon results in a tradeoff between improving the system resource utilization and satisfying the user QoS requirements. This issue can be critical for delay sensitive applications and degrade their performance. Here ASST is tuned according to various system parameters, including delay thresholds, MT velocities, handover signaling costs and packet delay penalties. B) Algorithm on Adaptive RSS Threshold Mohanty and Akyildiz, in their paper, have proposed a WLAN to 3G handover decision method [6]. In this method, RSS of current network is compared with dynamic RSS threshold (Sth) when MT is connected to a WLAN access point. We observe the following notations with reference to fig 3.1 which shows a handoff from current network (AP) referred as WLAN, to the future network (BS), referred as 3G. Fig 3.1 Analysis of handoff process [6] * Sth: The threshold value of RSS to initiate the handover process. Therefore, when the RSS of WLAN referred to as ORSS (old RSS) in fig 3.1 drops below Sth, the registration procedures are initiated for MT’s handover to the 3G network. * a:The cell size we assume that the cells are of hexagonal shape. d: It is the shortest distance between the point at which handover is initiated and WLAN boundary. We observe the Path loss Model given by; Pr(x) = Pr (d0) + Where x is the distance between the Access Point and Mobile Terminal, and Pr (d0) is the received power at a known reference distance (d0). The typical value of d0 is 1 km for macrocells, 100m for outdoor microcells, and 1m for indoor picocells. The numerical value of Pr (d0) depends on different factors such as frequency, antenna heights, and antenna gains, is the path loss exponent. The typical values of ranges from 3 to 4 and 2 to 8 for macrocellular and microcellular environment. – Is a Zero mean Gaussian random variable that represents the statistical variation in Pr(x) caused by Shadowing. Typical std. deviation of is 12 dB. We observe the path loss model applied to the scenario. Pr (a ‘ d) = Pr (a) + Pr (a ‘ d) = Pr (a) + 10 log Sth = Smin + 10 log When the MT is located at point P, the assumption is that it can move in any direction with equal probability, i.e. the pdf of MT’s direction of motion is f = – †.’.(1) As per assumption, that MT’s direction of motion and speed remains the same from point P until it moves out of the coverage area of WLAN. As the distance of P from WLAN boundary is not very large, this assumption is realistic. The need for handoff to cellular network arises only if MTs direction of motion from P is in the range [ ] can move in both directions. Where = arctan otherwise the handoff initiation is false. The probability of false handoff initiation is using (1) is Pa = 1 – P (unfavourable event ) = 1 ‘ P ( favourable event ) = 1 – = 1 – †.’.(2) When the direction of motion of Mobile Terminal from P is, the time it takes to move out of the coverage area of WLAN cell i.e. old base station is given by time = from fig 3.1 Cos = Sec = , x = d sec Hence t = t= †.’.(3) Pdf of is f = â€Å"{† 1/(2†_1 ) -†_1†Ã¢â‚¬ _1 {0 otherwise from (3) , t is a function of i. e. t = g ( ) in [ ] [3] g(†)=dsec†/v Therefore pdf of t is given by f_t (t)=’_i’f_(† (†_i ) )/(g^’ (†_i ) ) †.’.(4) Where †i are the roots of equation t = g ( ) in [ ] And for each of these roots f†(†i)= for i = 1 and 2 f = + f = †.’.(5) Where g is derivative of g given by g = †.’.(6) = = g = t Using (5) (6), the pdf of t is given by f = †.’.(7) { 0 otherwise The probability of handoff failure is given by Pf = { 1 { P ( t ) { 0 †.’.(8) – handoff signaling delay and P ( t ) – is the probability that t when P (t ) = = = = arccos( ) †.’.(9) Using (8) and (9) we get Pf = { 1 { cos { 0 Pf = Since, †1 =arctan ( d/v†) Pf = Here, it shows that Probability of handoff failure depends on distance from point p to the boundary of the cell, velocity and handoff signaling delay †. The use of adaptive RSS threshold helps reducing the handoff failure probability as well as reducing unnecessary handovers. The exact value of Sth will depend on MT’s speed and handoff signaling delay at a particular time. Adaptive Sth is used to limit handoff failure. However, in this algorithm, the handoff from 3G network to a WLAN is not efficient when MTS traveling time inside a WLAN cell is less than the handover delay. This may lead to wastage of network resources. 3.3.2 Bandwidth based vertical handoff algorithm A Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) Based algorithm Yang, in his paper,[7] presented a bandwidth based vertical handover decision method between WLANs and a Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) network using Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) algorithm[7]. The SINR calculation of the WLAN (wireless LAN) signals is converted into an equivalent Signal to Interference and noise Ratio to be compared with the Signal to Interference and noise Ratio of the Wideband Code Division Multiple Access channel †AP =†AP [(1+ †BS/ †BS) WBS/ WAP -1] where †AP and †BS are the Signal to Interference and noise Ratio at the mobile terminal when associated with Wireless local area network and Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, respectively. † is the dB gap between the uncoded Quadrature Amplitude Modulation and channel capacity, minus the coding gain, and †AP equals to 3dB for Wireless local area network and †BS equals to 3dB for Wireless local area network, as stated by the authors. WAP and WBS are the carrier bandwidth of wireless local area network and Wideband Code Division Multiple Access links. Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio based handovers can provide users with higher overall throughput than RSS based handovers since the available throughput is directly dependent on the Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio, and this algorithm results in a balanced load between the wireless local area network and the Wideband Code Division Multiple Access networks. But such an algorithm may also int roduce excessive handovers with the variation of the Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio causing the node to hand over back and forth between two networks, commonly referred to as ping-pong effect. A Wrong Decision Probability (WDP) Prediction Based algorithm C.Chi, Cao, Hao and Liu, in their paper ‘Modeling and analysis of Handover algorithms’, have proposed a Vertical Handover decision algorithm based [8] on the Wrong Decision Probability (WDP) prediction. The Wrong Decision Probability is calculated by combining the probability of unnecessary handoff and the missing handoff. Assume that there are two networks i and j with overlapping coverage, and bi and bj are their available bandwidth. An unnecessary handoff occurs when the mobile terminal is in network i and decides to handoff to j, but bj is less than bi after this decision. A missing handoff occurs when the mobile terminal decides to stay connected to network i, but bi is less than bj after this decision. A handover from network i to network j is initiated if Pr † x l0 or bj – bi ‘ L, where Pr is the unnecessary handover probability, † is the traffic load of network i, l0 = 0.001, and L is a bandwidth threshold. The authors show that this alg orithm is able to reduce the Wrong Decision Probability and balance the traffic load; however, received signal strength is not considered. A handoff to a target network with high bandwidth but weak received signal is not desirable as it may bring discontinuity in the service. 3.3.3 Cost Function based vertical handoff algorithm A Cost Function Based algorithm with Normalization and Weights Distribution Hasswa, N. Nasser, and H. Hassanein, in their paper ‘A context-aware cross-layer archi- tecture for next generation heterogeneous wireless networks’, have proposed a cost function based handover decision algorithm in which the normalization and weights distribution methods are provided. A quality factor of network is used to evaluate the performance of a handover target candidate as Qi = WCCi + WSSi + WPPi + WdDi + WfFi where Qi is the quality factor of network i, Ci, Si, Pi, Di and Fi stand for cost of service, security, power consumption, network condition and network performance, and Wc, Ws, Wp, Wd andWf are the weights of these network parameters. Since each network parameter has a different unit, a normalization procedure is used and the normalized quality factor for network n is calculated as Wc(1/Ci) WSSi WP(1/Pi) Qi = †__________ + __________ + _______ max((1/C1),’..(1/Cn)) max(S1,’..Sn) max((1/P1),’..(1/Pn)) WdDi WfFi + ________ + ________ max (D1,’..Dn) max(F1,’..Fn) A handoff necessity estimator is also introduced to avoid unnecessary handovers High system throughput and user’s satisfaction can be achieved by introducing Hasswa’s algorithm, however, some of the parameters such as security and interference levels are difficult to calculate. A Weighted Function Based Algorithm R. Tawil, G. Pujolle, and O. Salazar in their paper presented a weighted function based[10] Vertical handover decision algorithm which transfers the Vertical handover decision calculation to the visited network instead of the mobile terminal. The weighted function of a candidate network is defined as Qi = WBBi +WDp 1/DPi+WC 1/Ci Where Qi represents the quality of network i, Bi, DPi and Ci are bandwidth, dropping probability and monetary cost of service, and WB, WDp and WC are their weights, where, WB +WDp +WC = 1 The candidate network with the highest score of Qi is selected as the handover target. By giving the calculation to the visited network, the resource of the mobile node can be saved so that the system is able to achieve short handoff decision delay, low handoff blocking rate and higher throughput. However, the method requires extra cooperation between the mobile node and the point of attachment of the visited network, which may cause additional delay and excessive load to the network when there are large number of mobile nodes. 3.3.4 ANN based vertical handoff algorithm A Multilayer Feedforward Artificial Neural Network Based Algorithm N. Nasser, S. Guizani, and E. Al-Masri, in their paper, developed a [11] Vertical handover decision algorithm based on artificial neural networks (ANN). The topology of the ANN consists of an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. The input layer consists of five nodes representing various parameters such as cost, RSS, bandwidth etc of the handoff target candidate networks. The hidden layer consists of variable number of nodes (neurons) which are basically activation functions. The output layer has one node which generates the ID of the candidate network of the handover target. All the neurons use sigmoid activation function. The authors have assumed the same cost function as in this work and also for ANN training they have generated a series of user preference sets with randomly selected weights. Then the system has to be trained to select the best candidate network among all the candidates. The authors have reported that by properly selecting the learning rate and the acc eptable error value, the system is able to find the best available candidate network successfully. Nevertheless, the algorithm suffers from a long delay during the training process which may lead to connection breakdown. A Method That Uses Two Neural Networks Pahlavan, in his paper, has proposed two neural [12] network based decision methods of vertical handoff. Here, only the vertical handoff mechanism is discussed. In the method for vertical handoff, an artificial neural network is used for handoffs from the Wireless local area network to the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). The Artificial neural network consists of an input layer, two middle layers and an output layer. Mobile node does periodical measurements of RSS and five most recent samples of RSS are fed into the ANN. The output is a binary signal: The value ‘1’ leads to a handover to the General Packet Radio Service, and the value ‘0’ means that the mobile terminal should remain connected to the access point. The ANN is trained before it is used in the decision process. Training is done by taking a number of RSS samples from the access point while minimizing the handover delay and ping-pong effect. This algorithm can reduce the number of handovers by eliminating the ping-pong effect, but the paper does not provide details on how exactly the neural network is trained and why the particular parameters are taken into consideration. This algorithm also has the short coming of the algorithm complexity and the training process to be performed in advance. Summary: From the above discussion, it can be concluded that RSS based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between microcellular and macro cellular networks. The network candidate with most stable RSS being the selection criteria. These algorithms are simple, but due to the fluctuation of RSS, they are less reliable. Bandwidth based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between any two heterogeneous networks. The network candidate with highest bandwidth is the selection criteria. These algorithms are simple. But, due to the changing available bandwidth, these algorithms are less reliable. Cost function based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between any two heterogeneous networks. Here, the inputs are various parameters such as cost, bandwidth, security etc The network candidate with highest overall performance is the selection criteria. These algorithms are complex. But, due to the difficulty in measuring parameters such as security etc, they are less reliable. ANN and Fuzzy logic based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between any two heterogeneous networks. Here, the inputs are various parameters such as RSS, cost, bandwidth, security etc depending on different methods. The network candidate with highest overall performance is the selection criteria. These algorithms are very complex. But, due to training of system, they are highly reliable. ‘ Chapter-4 Algorithms and Methodologies 4.1 Variance based vertical handoff algorithm Proposed algorithm is variance based algorithm which calculates the variance of parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth and packet loss for various networks such as UMTS,WLAN,Wimax and the network with most of the parameters with minimum variance being selected. In our proposed algorithm, handoff metrics such as delay, bandwidth, jitter, packet loss etc are included Fig 4.1 Flow Chart of variance based algorithm Variance = ‘(x-†)’^2/N , where x is any metrics such as delay, bandwidth, jitter etc and † is its mean of a set of samples of the particular parameters. N is set of samples. In this algorithm, whenever the signal strength of a mobile terminal drops below threshold ,there is request from mobile terminal for handoff to the network which is accessible. The algorithm checks whether the visitor network available or not, if visitor network is available ,it will broadcast required parameters such as packet delay, jitter, packet loss and bandwidth etc. The variance of the broadcasted parameters are calculated based on the number of samples received for each parameter. Then, the candidate network (Visitor network) having most of the minimum variance of the parameter is selected. In this case, variance of delay, jitter, packet loss and bandwidth are considered for the set of 100 samples received. Here, variance of packet delay is calculated as: †_d^2 = ‘(D-†_d)’^2/N Where, †d is the variance of the packet delay parameter, D is the packet delay at that instant ,†d is the mean of the packet delay values received and N is the total number of samples for packet delay parameters(which is 100 in this case). Similarly, variance of bandwidth is calculated as: †_B^2 = ‘(B-†_B)’^2/N Where, †B is the variance of the Bandwidth parameter, B is the Bandwidth at that instant ,†B is the mean of the bandwidth values received and N is the total number of samples for bandwidth parameters(which is 100 in this case). In the same way, variance of Jitter is calculated as: †_J^2 = ‘(J-†_J)’^2/N Where, †J is the variance of the Jitter parameter, J is the Jitter at that instant ,†J is the mean of the jitter values received and N is the total number of samples for jitter parameters(which is 100 in this case). In the same way, variance of Packet loss is calculated as: †_P^2 = ‘(P-†_P)’^2/N Where, †P is the variance of the packet loss parameter, P is the packet loss at that instant ,†P is the mean of the packet loss values received and N is the total number of samples for packet loss parameters(which is 100 in this case). Out of these variance †_d^2 , †_B^2, †_J^2, †_P^2, the candidate network most of them with minimum values will be selected. Score† =’arg’_(i=1)^MMAX(min †_d^2 , †_B^2, †_J^2, †_P^2) The candidate network which satisfies above equation is selected. Where M is the number of candidate network. 4.2 SNR based vertical handoff algorithm Proposed algorithm is an SNR based algorithm which calculates the value of SNR of parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth and packet loss for various networks such as UMTS, WLAN, Wimax with the network with maximum SNR being selected. In our proposed algorithm, handoff metrics such as delay, bandwidth, jitter, packet loss, etc are included Pages: Page 1, Page 2